Universal scaling laws of keyhole stability and porosity in 3D printing of metals

Abstract Metal three-dimensional (3D) printing includes a vast number of operation and material parameters with complex dependencies, which significantly complicates process optimization, materials development, real-time monitoring control. We leverage ultrahigh-speed synchrotron X-ray imaging high-fidelity multiphysics modeling to identify simple yet universal scaling laws for keyhole stability porosity in metal 3D printing. The apply broadly remain accurate different materials, processing conditions, machines. define dimensionless number, the Keyhole predict aspect ratio morphological transition from stable at low chaotic high number. Furthermore, we discover inherent correlation between formation By reducing dimensions formulation these challenging problems, compact will aid optimization defect elimination during printing, potentially lead quantitative predictive framework.